An Eastern Perspective on Dying: Tibetan Buddhist Liturgical Music and Ritual
at the End of Life and What Role Music-Thanatologists Can Play at the Bedside
Lane Community College Music-Thanatology Training Program
Academic Research Paper
Kim Swennes
October 25, 2011
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Acknowledgments and Preface
This was my first academic research paper so there are many people who walked me through the
process and provided insights to whom I am very grateful: Sogyal Rinpoche, whose book The
Tibetan Book of Living and Dying touched my heart and is the source for a large part of this
paper; Jacqueline Mandell who provided insights into Buddhist practices in the United States and
abroad; to the Gyuto Monks Tantric Choir who always created a sense of wonder and peace with
their chant praising Chakrasamvara, the deity of meditation; to Raya Parttenheimer, who took
time out of her busy schedule to guide me through all the ins and outs of writing a research paper
and provided valuable suggestions and insights; to my parents, Dick and Joan Swennes, for all
their love and support; and to God, Jesus, Chenrezig, Buddha of Compassion and Amitabha,
Buddha of Limitless Light for their wisdom and compassion.
Studying Tibetan Buddhist practices for the dying and its traditions in liturgical music not only
uncovered historical and practical information that could be useful to music-thanatologists, but
also opened new doorways on the path to self-discovery. There are so many pearls of wisdom to
be found in the teachings of this enlightened and peaceful religion. It is with great humility that I
present this research paper. It will barely scratch the surface of the information that is available;
but it is my hope that perhaps a small seed may be planted from which more exploration will
unfold.
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Introduction
With greater diversity taking place in U.S. cities, music-thanatologists will encounter people
from many different cultural backgrounds and religions. A general understanding of patients’
customs can be beneficial when making prescriptive decisions for them. Incorporating musical
elements from other music traditions can only expand potential prescriptive choices available for
consideration. The focus of this paper is to explore the liturgical music and practices for
assisting dying patients from the perspective of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, and to discuss
what role music thanatologists can play at the bedside. Topics to be covered include an
overview of Buddhist history and core beliefs; the Tibetan tradition of the four Bardos; Tibetan
Buddhist chant; the five warrior symbols; and instrumental music; and finally, a summary of
discoveries, recommendations and conclusion.
Brief Overview of Buddhist History
There seem to be some differences of opinion concerning when Sakyamuni, the founder of
Buddhism, lived, and his early years are sketchy, but it is agreed that it was between the 6
th
and
4
th
centuries B.C.E. According to the tradition of the Theravada Buddhists, Sakyamuni was born
around 560 B.C.E. in Northern India (what is now known as Nepal) in a village called Lumbini.
The name Sakyamuni means Sage of the Sakyas. He was a member of a warrior tribe called the
Sakyas, and was part of the privileged class; his father, King Suddhodana probably ruled a small
kingdom or was part of an oligarchy. It is believed he died around 480 B.C.E.
The name his
parents gave him was Siddhartha Gautama. There are accounts that a visiting astrologer visited
King Suddhodana and prophesied that there were two possible roads ahead for young
Siddhartha; he could become a great king or he may give up all his material wealth to become a
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holy man, depending on what he encountered when he went outside the palace walls. King
Suddhodana was determined that Siddhartha should be a king and would not let the young prince
leave the palace grounds; but when Siddhartha became 29 years old, he left the palace several
times and had four encounters which changed his life forever. He encountered an old man, a
sick man, a corpse and a holy man who was serene and had inner peace. Because of these
encounters he learned that there was suffering in the world and decided to renounce his former
life and embark on a spiritual journey in search of a permanent end to suffering. He studied with
renowned teachers first but their teachings did not provide the answer he sought so next he chose
to undergo extreme deprivation and exposure to pain but this also did not provide an answer on
how to end suffering. It made him realize there needed to be a middle
ground (Buddhists refer to
this as the Middle Way) between excess and self-mortification. It is said that, at the age of 35,
Siddhartha Gautama sat under a fig tree in the village of Bodhgaya, India (the tree is known as
the Bodhi tree) and said he would not leave until he had attained enlightenment. Many days later
he was able to become liberated from the cycle of suffering and rebirth (known as samsara) and
had become enlightened. From that point on Sakyamuni Buddha started teaching and traveling
throughout Northeastern India attracting followers; soon after he founded a monastic order.
Approximately one hundred years after Buddha’s death, the Buddhist community split into two
separate schools, Theravada and Mahasamghika; these two schools divided further into some 18-
20 schools, all with differing interpretations of doctrine and law. The Theravada school grew in
Southern Asia, encompassing Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.
Around the 1
st
century B.C.E. a new school called Mahayana was formed as a reform movement.
In comparison with other schools which had an emphasis on living apart from the world and
focusing on attaining personal perfection, The Mahayana school believed that all sentient beings
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had the potential for attaining Buddhahood and achieving enlightenment and it was essential that
they go out into the world with the goal of liberating all sentient beings from suffering. This was
an altruistic practice that wasn’t just centered on one’s personal attainment of Buddhahood. The
Mahayana school grew and spread to China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam and reached Tibet by the 7
th
Century. At that time, Tibet was a mountainous area which spanned 2.5 million kilometers.
There are some who believe Buddhist scriptures first reached Southern Tibet possibly as early as
173 AD at the time of the reign of the 28
th
king of Tibet, Thothori Nyantsen. By the 3
rd
century
AD, these scriptures had traveled to Northern Tibet. The majority of the translations of Buddhist
scriptures in these countries are taken from Mahayana texts which were in Sanskrit. Around
641, King Songtsen Gampo created a unified Tibet by marrying
into two royal families, China
and Nepal. Both of his wives were Buddhist and soon King Gampo made Buddhism the official
religion in Tibet. In 774, King Trisong Detsen invited the renowned Buddhist mystic,
Padmasambhava (known by Tibetans as Guru Rinpoche) to Tibet to subdue evil mountain deities
who were plaguing the kingdom. While Guru Rinpoche was there, he is said to have integrated
Buddhism with the ancient native shamanistic religion, Bon. The integration of these two
religions formed Tibetan Buddhism. Today in Tibet there are four major schools of Tibetan
Buddhism, the Gelug, Nyingma, Kagyu and Sakya. There is also a “New Bon” branch of
Tibetan Buddhism which is practiced today. New Bon is much closer to Buddhism now than its
ancient ancestor. Because of the invasion of Tibet by China in 1949 and the exile of many
Tibetan leaders from their homeland to other countries, Tibetan Buddhism has spread around the
world and is growing in the United States. Currently, Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in
the U.S. Approximate numbers range between 2 to 10 million.
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Core Beliefs of Buddhism & Tibetan Buddhism
This is just a very general list of the core beliefs of Buddhism. This sacred wisdom needs to be
delved into much deeper and I hope the reader looks further for more details.
1. Life and death are in the mind. We create our own happiness or our own suffering; a
mind that is free from suffering is said to be enlightened.
2. All sentient beings are sacred and it should be every Buddhist’s goal to help them
become liberated from the cycle of suffering (called samsara) and attain enlightenment.
3. Our thoughts and actions will bring about a consequence (cause and effect) or Karma.
4. Rebirth: Until we have achieved enlightenment, we go through a continuous cycle of
birth, death and rebirth. Our karma, whether it’s positive karma or negative karma will
affect our present life and our life in the future.
5. No-self: We spend our lives holding on to (or grasping) our concept of self which
separates us from the rest of existence. Buddhist teachings emphasize that we do not
have a separate self from the rest of existence.
6. Meditation is important and should be a life-long practice; it is essential for attaining
enlightenment.
7. Everything is impermanent. We suffer because we want everything to be permanent and
have lasting happiness but that doesn’t happen.
8. Dependent origination: Everything is interdependent and has causal connections between
one another.
9. (Tibetan Buddhism) It is important to have a teacher instruct you and guide you on your
spiritual journey during your lifetime.
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10. (Tibetan Buddhism) Every sentient being possesses Buddha nature. Deity Yoga is
believing that your mind is Buddha mind. One way of doing this is to visualize yourself
as one of the Buddhist deities and actually becoming the positive attributes of that divine
spiritual being.
The Tibetan Buddhist Perspective of the Cycle of Life – The Four Bardos
Bardo is a Tibetan word which means transition. In the Tibetan tradition there are four of these
transitional states (bardos) that a person experiences, the natural bardo of life; the painful bardo
of dying; the luminous bardo of dharmata in the after death experience; and finally, the karmic
bardo of becoming where your next life is determined. Life is a continuing cycle of birth, death
and rebirth.
A. The Bardo of Life
This bardo encompasses the period beginning at birth and ending at death. In Sogyal
Rinpoche’s book, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying
, he states, “No one can die
fearlessly and in complete security until they have truly realized the nature of mind. For only
this realization, deepened over years of sustained practice, can keep the mind stable during the molten chaos of the process of death.” Buddhist practice during a person’s lifetime is
not only to guide him through life, but also to prepare him for death. Buddhists teach that
our life experiences, good or bad, are in our minds. We create our own happiness or our own suffering. The main two aspects of mind are the ordinary mind, or “Sem” in Tibetan and
then the nature of mind which is called “Rigpa,” Sem is the “thinking” mind, the mind that
manipulates, rationalizes, desires, wallowing in negative thoughts and looking to
something
outside itself; constantly trying to defend and assert its existence. Rigpa, on the other hand,
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is pure, open, free, limitless, highly aware and is our innermost essence; it is the basis of
understanding. Rigpa is changeless; even death can’t change it. Rigpa is not just in our
mind; it is everywhere. It is a goal of all Buddhists to strengthen Rigpa; this is done through
meditation and training. One of the teachings that is employed to help realize the nature of
mind is the practice of Dzogchen, translated as “Great Completion.” A master teacher must
be present to guide the student through this process which should be a lifelong journey, but
also, one can begin any time. It is emphasized that the more the person can be devout and
disciplined in his practice, the better prepared he will be at the moment of death.
B. The Painful Bardo of Dying
The Bardo of Dying begins at the start of the process of dying and ends at the last phase of
the dying process at a state called the inner dissolution. The Bardo of Dying is referred to as
painful because of the uncertainty of what is going to happen at death which can cause great
suffering. In this period the dying person needs to try to keep her mind pure and let go of
any attachments, saying goodbye to loved ones and resolving any issues. It is very important
that the atmosphere in the dying person’s room be filled with positive emotions, not negative
ones, because the last thought or emotion the dying person has before death has a profound
effect on what will happen for her in the future after death. It is recommended that distraught
loved ones should not be at the dying person’s bedside in case they upset them. When the
dying person has reached the phase in the dying process before her senses have completely
failed and the outer breathing has ceased, her teacher or a close friend or family member will
read the Instructions for Dying to her which guides the dying person through the dying
process; the dying person is reminded that whatever they encounter in the next two bardo
states are projections from their own mind. Another common practice for people preparing
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to die is the Phowa practice. It is a method of transference of the dying person’s
consciousness into a space of Rigpa at the moment of death. It must be done with a qualified
spiritual teacher because the right timing is essential. Finally the dying person is asked to be
reborn in the realm of the Buddhas or as a human so that they will be able to help, care for
and protect others. The Instructions for Dying are repeated three times and the teacher or
spiritual friend will go into a state of Rigpa and direct this positive energy to the dying
person as a blessing. At death, the true nature of mind, called the Ground Luminosity, will
be awakened in the dying person. This is a critical moment in their death because if they are
able to recognize it they will be able to be liberated from suffering and become enlightened.
That is why training with a qualified teacher and a regular meditation practice are so
important during the Bardo of Life, because they help to stabilize the mind and prepare it for
the time of death. Many people are not
able to recognize the Ground Luminosity and just
lose consciousness. After a few days their consciousness leaves their body. There are two
stages of death, called the outer dissolution and the inner dissolution. The first that occurs is
the outer dissolution, when the dying person’s senses cease to function; the next stage, the
inner dissolution, is a period of time just after the dying person’s last breath, a period of
approximately 20 minutes. During this time the dying person’s thought states and emotions
dissolve, and as this happens, they experience four subtle levels of consciousness. It is the
custom in Tibet to not touch or move the body for three days after death and to maintain a
quiet, peaceful atmosphere around the body.
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C. The Bardo of Dharmata
If the person who has died fails to recognize Ground Luminosity and achieve liberation, she
will move to the Bardo of Dharmata, the after-death experience. The word, Dharmata means
the essence of things as they are. It is the place where the truth is revealed, pure and
unconditional, the nature of reality. It is referred to as the Luminous Bardo because the
radiance of the mind is presented in light, color and sound. There are four phases to the
Bardo of Dharmata and in each phase, another opportunity is presented to achieve liberation
and avoid rebirth. If the opportunity is missed in the first phase, the person will go on to the
second and so forth until they move into the Bardo of Becoming. It is taught that all that the
person encounters in this Bardo is only the natural radiance of their own mind. If the traveler
can recognize that what she is experiencing, no matter how frightening, is the wisdom energy
of her own mind, then she will be able to attain liberation. If she is not able
to do this, she
will be drawn to the lights of the six realms of samsara and move into the Bardo of
Becoming.
D. The Bardo of Becoming
Because the opportunities to recognize Ground Luminosity and the nature of mind were
missed in the previous bardos, old previous thought patterns are reawakened and begin to
return. The Bardo of Becoming spans the period between that reawakening and the actual
time the person is reborn in the womb in her new life. The average duration of the Bardo of
Becoming is 49 days and the minimum 21 days as the person waits until the karmic
connection is made with her new parents. It is taught that while she waits, she will re-
experience her physical death every week on the day of week and time that she died and
there are some accounts that the person’s life will be reviewed. During the first 21 days the
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person still has a strong identification with her previous life, but after that she will become
more and more drawn toward her future life as it starts to develop. There are six realms the
dead person could be reborn into, hell; the realm of hungry ghosts; the realm of the gods; the
realm of the demigods; the animal kingdom; and the
realm of humans. Only one realm, the
realm of humans, is considered to be a desirable place to be reborn. It is believed people who
are in the Bardo of Becoming are highly clairvoyant, which can either be very helpful to
them or cause them great suffering. The dead are able to receive messages from the living.
Living people can provide help to their loved ones in this bardo state, especially within the
initial 21 days by sending them prayers, performing regular spiritual practices, conveying
positive messages and positive actions, such as giving to charity on the dead loved one’s
behalf. If the dead person is in a negative emotional state, it could have an unfortunate effect
on the type of rebirth she obtains; therefore, it is important that the person’s loved ones
conduct themselves in a way that will not bring her any distress and send her many positive,
loving messages while she is in that bardo state.
Liturgical Music in Tibetan Buddhism
Music is featured more prominently in different branches of Buddhist liturgical traditions. In the
Hinayana and Theravada branches found mainly in Sri Lanka and southeast Asia, worship is scripture-oriented with the purity of the word being the main thrust in their religious practices.
Music is not as prominent in liturgical services where these traditions are strong. The Mahayana branch of Buddhism originated in India and is commonly found in China, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet
and Japan. It was in the Mahayana school that Sakyamuni Buddha was consecrated as a divine
being for the first time, and over time, many other people were elevated to buddhahood and
venerated. Positive inner attributes came to be personified as deities and worshipped as well.
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These enhancements in religious practice brought in more potential for emotional expression in
worship so there came to be a much greater emphasis on liturgical music in the Mahayana
branch. In Tibet, music is now considered a necessary part of any major monastic Buddhist
ceremony.
1. Chant
The very early Buddhist scriptures were not set in verse originally, but soon came to be as it was
discovered setting the text in verse and using verse and meter while reciting the scriptures was a
great aid in memorization. Early Buddhists learned this method of memorizing and reciting the
scripture from Brahman priests in India. Tibetan Buddhists have preserved an extensive
repertoire of chant. The chant is classified into three loose categories: Don, which is recitation
chant; Rta, melodic chant; and Dbyangs which is described as tone-contour chant. The three can
overlap. Don chant is considered the least effective and has less esthetic value than the Rta and
Dbyangs chants. Tibetan performers don’t consider Don to be melodic or musical. They are a
controlled form of recitation which intones individual syllables of the text
uniformly so there
aren’t any fluctuations as in regular speech. The pitch can often just be on one note without
notable recurring rhythm and pitch patterns. Don are delivered at a faster tempo than Rta and
Dbyangs, and usually at a higher pitch. Don chant is normally performed during low rituals
1
.
Rta chants are more melodic and musical. The melody in the Rta chant is not melded to the
rhythm of the text but changes independently. Melodies are made up of scales and are organized
in a strophic pattern. A common feature of the Rta is that the pitch rises from beginning to end;
the performer does this consciously to conserve his voice at the beginning, and then as he gets
1
See listed YouTube links for examples of Don chant in Appendix A. Note: these examples do not completely fit every
description set out above, but the types can overlap one another. Other musical sources are listed in the Reference
section of this paper.
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closer to the end of the chant, he can expend more air and start to raise the pitch. There are also
alterations of the intervals as the chant progresses. Rta are usually lower in pitch (at least to
start) and have a slower tempo than the Don chant
2
. Dbyangs are considered the most beautiful
of the chant and are used in very important Buddhist ceremonies. Dbyangs chant is very
melodic, but much more complex than the Rta chant. It is also sung at the lowest pitches and has
the slowest tempo. Pitch variations may be used or alterations of the melody using vocal color or
special vocal techniques to employ effects such as vocal overtone singing, the sounding two or
more pitches simultaneously with one voice
3
. Dbyangs melodies are notated and preserved,
unlike the Don and Rta chant. Often the Dbyangs melodies are put with an instrumental piece.
There is an instrumental introduction, the Dbyangs melody would follow, then there would be
another instrumental interlude and a Rta chant would complete the text introduced by the
Dbyangs melody.
Five Warrior Syllables
The practice of the Five Warrior Symbols was included in this paper because it involves the use
of intoned sacred syllables for their healing properties which I thought would be of interest to
music-thanatologists. Understanding the meaning of these syllables could be useful in
prescribing music. The Five Warrior Syllables practice comes from the Bon Buddhist tradition.
They are called Warrior Syllables because they are able to conquer the forces of negativity.
Each sacred syllable helps to bring forth healing and positive changes, and each syllable
corresponds to specific energy fields in the body (or chakras). They are called “seed syllables”
and each one is said to contain the essence of enlightenment. When these syllables are practiced
2
See Appendix A for listed YouTube link for example of Rta chant.
3
For information in more detail see Appendix A for YouTube link.
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together, they represent all aspects of our complete and authentic self. Below is a table showing
the five syllables, pronunciation, what part of the body and chakra they represent, corresponding
meditational color, and the features of each syllable.
Syllable &
Pronunciation
Represents Chakra
A (ah) Body Crown/Forehead White Openness, space, changeless
body, clear, awake, confident
OM (home) Speech Throat Red Unceasing speech, light,
awareness, completeness
HUNG (book) Mind Heart Blue Recognizing positive qualities,
undeluded mind
RAM (ah) Virtuous
Qualities
Solar Plexus Red Ripened virtuous qualities,
enthusiasm or excitement
DZA (dzah) Actions of
Enlightenment
Sacral Green Spontaneous action,
manifestation
As you begin this meditation, you bring your ordinary self to the table and choose a problem you
would like to heal and transform. Obstacles are viewed in three ways, external (a problem which
has manifested itself in the external world); internal (inner problems that arise from negative
emotions inside ourselves); and secret problems (a problem that is subconscious, hidden from us.) Secret problems will grow into internal problems and internal problems will grow into external problems. The syllable A releases blocks and provides inner space. The Om syllable
that follows it in meditation produces a feeling of clarity and completeness within the space
created by A. Those two syllables combined open up the way to focus on the heart chakra with the Hung syllable in which we draw our attention to the positive qualities within ourselves that
are innately there; these qualities are called the Four Immeasurables which are love, compassion,
joy and equanimity. In meditation, you choose one of these qualities to focus on; in Hung,
whatever may be blocking your awareness of that special quality within is dissolved and you feel
it. The next syllable, Ram ripens and perfects the feeling into a virtuous quality which you
experience in the presence of others. Finally, the syllable, Dza manifests natural and
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spontaneous action of that quality in the world. In meditation, usually you intone the syllables in
sequence as listed on the previous page or you may choose one of these qualities to focus on. As
an example of how the syllables can be used at the bedside, it is proposed that the syllable A has
the potential to assist the patient and their family to find release or a clearing away of any
confusion or energy blocks. The Om syllable can be used to assist in attaining mental clarity and
completeness. These two combined, first the A of release and then the Om of clarity and
completeness has the potential to help prepare the patient mentally for the time of death and
assist him in getting grounded and centered during the time prior to the reading of the
Instructions for Dying. You see how the power and meaning behind these syllables could be
utilized when singing at the bedside. However, in this practice, it is the essence of the sound that
is important, not the need for a beautiful tone quality. I highly recommend Tenzin Wangyal
Rinpoche’s book, Tibetan Sound Healing, which sets this practice out in complete detail.
2. Instrumental Music
Instruments used in Tibetan monasteries in their orchestras, or rol mos, fall under the following
three main categories:
A. Khrol ba instruments (instruments that are rung): include
Dril bu, metal bells
Da ma ru, hourglass shaped drums with strikers attached at the waist. Also part of this
family are skull drums, wooden hourglass drums, special carved drums
B. Broung ba instruments (instruments that are beaten); include
Rol mo, cymbals
Rnga, frame drums
Mkhar rnga, bronze gongs
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C. Bud pa instruments (instruments that are blown). Include
Dung, trumpets. This category includes conch trumpets, long and short metal trumpets,
human thighbone trumpets of various sizes and tiger’s thighbone trumpets
Rgya Gling, oboes
There is a fourth classification, the rgyu rkyen instruments which include the stringed
instruments; these are not used in religious ceremonies and only serve a secular purpose in
Tibetan monasteries
4
.
The Broung ba instruments are considered the most important in the rol mo because they provide
the framework of the musical structure. The Khrol ba instruments are used to provide counter-
rhythms and are considered second most important. The Bud pa instruments provide the melody.
Two of the Khrol ba instruments, the Da ma ru and the Dril bu have great symbolic significance
and are often held together. The Dril bu (bell) represents the perfection of wisdom (a female
attribute) which brings about the realization of emptiness. When the bell is rung it is
proclaiming the sound of emptiness. The Dril bu is always held in the left hand (the female
wisdom hand) and often paired with a Da ma ru which is held in the right hand (method hand) as
a male attribute. The function of the Da ma ru is to call all the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and
dakinis
5
to great bliss, inspiring them with joy. The hollow body of the da ma ru represents the
dharmakaya and the two drumheads represent the union of appearance and emptiness; the two
strikers symbolize the union of method and wisdom. The thighbone trumpet was made from a
human femur. It has been used to control spirits and elementals and is also used by Tibetan
shamans for performing exorcisms and for weather control. In tantric Buddhism, the femur of a
sixteen-year-old Brahmin girl was considered the most effective bone for demon control. In
4
See Appendix B for pictures of the instruments
5
See Appendix D for definition
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modern times, “thighbone” trumpets in monasteries are usually made of bronze designed to look
like a human femur. Conch shells were used in Hindu traditions prior to being adopted into early
Buddhist ritual. The conch shell was used as a symbol for proclaiming the Buddha’s teachings
and the power of his speech, for proclaiming the Dharma, subjugating the three realms and
controlling maras and evil spirits. The conch shell is considered a wisdom (female) symbol and
is usually held in the left hand. The white conch shell is considered the most desirable for use in
rituals
6
3. Mental Music
Buddhist Monks in Tibet will consciously project musical sounds with their minds during
meditation or in the ritual ceremonies. They believe this mental projection enhances the
“external” music being played or sung.
Discoveries/Recommendations/Conclusion
The tradition of the Bardos in Tibetan Buddhism has revealed that our role at the bedside of a
Buddhist patient may be a little different. All Tibetan Buddhists don’t necessarily practice alike,
but the tradition of the Bardos during the dying process is usually observed by American
Buddhists following the Tibetan tradition in the United States as well as in Tibet. Based on these
traditions, it may not be appropriate for a music-thanatologist to be present at the time of
imminent death because silence may need to be observed in preparation for reading the
Instructions for Dying from the Tibetan Book of the Dead
or to perform the Phowa practice. It
would be very appropriate for a music-thanatologist to offer music before the time of imminent
death begins in order to provide a restful, beautiful environment to calm the patient because it is
important that the patient feel as serene and in as positive a frame of mind as possible. The
6
See Appendix A for an audio example of instrumental music on YouTube.
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Phowa chanting is designed to gather energy that will help shoot the dying person’s
consciousness from his/her body; it can be quite lengthy and continues until the person has died;
there may be occasions prior to this that a music-thanatologist may be helpful by getting that
higher energy started with music that has the potential to invoke inspiration or release; but it is
suggested that the music-thanatologist get a recording of the Phowa chant to use as a guide for
the type of pre-music they want to employ and try to match the modal tonalities so there is
cohesion between them. However, every patient is different and the same delivery may not be
effective in every instance. Buddhist practitioners assisting during the dying process should be
consulted. Another place where a music-thanatologist could be very helpful is during the period
of time the person who has died is in the Bardo of Becoming, a span of 21-49 days. Playing
uplifting and peaceful music in dedication to the person in transition could help him to remain in
a positive frame of mind which is critical as he moves to his future life. Of course, a patient
doesn’t have to be Buddhist to benefit from this time to honor and remember him.
In the Tibetan Book of Living and Dying
, Sogyal Rinpoche recommends two mantras that are
especially good when working with the terminally ill and dying. For most Americans whose
native language is English, mantras would probably work the best for setting to music, or you
can use the traditional Tibetan melodies for these mantras. There are many mantras in use and
these can be repeated many times or with variations. Mantras are norma lly shorter than the
prayers and are easier to memorize. One of the mantras recommended is OM MANI PADME
HUM (pronounced in Tibetan: Om manee pehmeh hoong) which is the mantra to Chenrezig, the
Buddha who embodies compassion. There is a translation: Behold, the jewel in the lotus; but not all Buddhists are in agreement that this mantra is translatable. The Compassion Mantra helps
to purify any negative emotions the dying person may have that are causing distress. One
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suggestion at the bedside would be to deliver the mantra softly using a melody that is mainly
stepwise in construction with a short ambitus so it can be sung with a lot of warm legato which
has the potential to provide a gentle, nurturing atmosphere of serenity.
The other mantra that was recommended is OM AMI DEWA HRIH (pronounced in Tibetan:
Om Ahmay Daya Vahter) which is the mantra of the Buddha Amitabha, known as the Buddha of
Limitless Light. It is said that a person can come to paradise in the pure land of Amitabha if
right at the time of his death he envisions Buddha Amitabha in the heavens on the western
horizon and repeats his name as a mantra. I have heard a recording of this mantra using a
traditional Tibetan melody in an eastern modal scale which comes closer to a modern western
minor tonality. Because Amitabha is the Buddha of Limitless Light, it would be interesting to
explore a melody which is in a western major tonality or an eastern or western mode which
comes closer to a western major tonality which may have the potential to create a lighter,
brighter atmosphere.
Listed are some musical elements and deliveries that are prevalent in Tibetan chant and could be
used at the bedside at certain times for both Buddhist and non-Buddhist patients:
In the monasteries, the monks intone the chant at the very bottom of their vocal range;
this could have the potential to produce a darker, warmer and mystical atmosphere.
“Mystical” is rather subjective, but that is what I hear when I listen to recordings of
the monks’ chant.
Use of non-inflected monotone syllables repeatedly on one pitch: this could have the
potential to produce a calming effect on a patient, maybe with light accompaniment
supporting it.
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Glottal slides up or down a note on small intervals (minor 2
nd
to as wide as a minor
3
rd
); this could have the potential to create a flowing, liquid tonal texture to the voice
which could also be calming for the patient.
Long periods of repetition of the same melodic line which gives a feeling that time
has been expanded; this has the potential to allow the patient to “let go” and drift in
an interior space.
Often the ending note of the Rta or Dbyangs chant is not the same as beginning so
there is not always a strong sense of a resolution to a tonic. There could be times
when you wanted a sense of ambiguity in the melody; again, perhaps a melodic space
with hazier borders where a patient could drift into an interior space.
Modal tonal structures can have from only 3 to 7 notes, and these could be used in
place of Western scales and modes. There are recordings and YouTube examples
available which can give you an idea of how these modes sound. These modes are
notated in monasteries but I was not able to obtain any documents showing this
notation (for more research ahead).
If you really wanted a challenge, you could learn vocal overtone singing, it can be done if you’re
willing to practice; but this is probably something you will
want to try at home, before venturing
out and dazzling your friends and co-workers; personally, I think this technique is more effective
when utilized with many voices instead of just one.
It is proposed that The Warrior Syllables could be utilized either alternating with a mantra or by
themselves set to a harp accompaniment or even alone, a cappella, as the original intention is that
they be intoned on one note. When you listen to
Tibetan Buddhist chant, you get a different
sense of time than what you hear in Western music. It is expansive and broader, ever flowing.
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There is more repetition than what we are used to and it sounds deceptively simple, almost
minimalist when the Don chant is chanted. This expansiveness can be utilized in prescriptive
music.
In Appendix A there is a link to an example of what I consider to be more of a “westernized”
setting of the beautiful Vajra Guru (Padmasambhava) mantra which has been set to voice and
orchestra. This shows how well the melodic chants can be arranged with accompanying
instruments. The harp is not used in Tibetan liturgical music, so this would be a hybrid version
of the chant.
Included is music I arranged for the Compassion Mantra (Appendix C) OM MANI PADME
HUM which probably would be considered Dbyangs because of the instrumental
accompaniment, but the musical elements include a simple Rta melody which comes from an
unknown source, based on a C minor scale and constructed of four short phrases, one of them
repeated. The setting is very syllabic so the text can be clearly understood; there are contrasting
sections where the mantra is intoned on one repeated whole note like Don chant. The
composition has a very solid 2/4 meter with an almost constant pattern of moving arpeggiated
eighth notes. Only two chords are used, the tonic C minor chord and the B major VII chord.
The bass line includes an added note ended at the end of the arpeggio which is either a major 2
nd
,
in the case of the C minor chord, or a minor 2
nd
with the VII chord. The constant rhythmic and
chord progression repetition is intended to reflect the long periods of repetition found in
liturgical chant which creates a feeling of expansiveness. The mantra syllables delivered on
single whole notes are also intended to convey a feeling of expansion. There is a slight alteration
in the accompaniment pattern in this section where the third of the chord is introduced in the
right harp hand. The first time it appears, it is an eighth note on the second half of the fourth
Eastern Perspectives on Dying
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beat. In the following line, it appears on the first beat of the measure. These notes are intended
to represent bell tones. Often bells (or drilbu) are used while reciting the chant. This melody
could also be accompanied on block chords if more simplicity is called for. The expansiveness
of time with the continuous bass line pattern and the intoning of the chant on whole notes on one
pitch were intended to create atmosphere of peace and introspection. The musical intention was
that the musical elements described above combined in the setting of the Compassion Mantra
might convey warmth, acceptance and peace; a musical space that would wrap the patient in a
soft cocoon of sound where she would feel safe to let go.
The instrumental music used during high liturgical rituals in the monastery is comprised mainly
of percussion instruments and loud blown instruments,
like trumpets and shawms, which
probably wouldn’t be welcomed in a small hospital room; however, there could be a place for
prescribing the use of a little hand bell or a small sound bowl at the bedside, delivered softly.
Aspects of the musical structure of the instrumental interludes could be used on the harp, such as
the calling and responding of the trumpets, or there could be a time when more rhythmic
complexity is called for, and different rhythms are utilized in the harp and voice or in the right
hand and left hand of the harp.
There is so much information about Buddhist beliefs and traditions to be imparted; but it
couldn’t be touched upon here because it would take a whole book, probably several. My hope
is that this paper can give the reader a good general sense of Tibetan Buddhism, the use of music
in liturgical settings and practices for the dying. It would be a great privilege to work with a
Buddhist teacher or spiritual friend to support and prepare a dying patient for their future life
with the gentle touch of music. Music-thanatologists are presented with many opportunities to
work with people from all different cultures and religious traditions, and what an honor that is!
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We have a responsibility to be as sensitive to our patients and their families’ customs as possible.
It is my sincere hope that this paper was informative and will prove to be useful in the future. I
also hope it will pique the reader’s curiosity to delve further into Buddhist musical traditions.
Thank you for listening.
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Bibliography
Beer, Robert: The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols, Shambhala Publications, Inc.
(Boston, MA) 2003
Harris, Ian, Varley, Helen; Connolly, Peter; Travagnin, Stefania: Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Anness Publishing Ltd. 2009
Irons, Edward A.: Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Edward A. Irons, Checkmark Books, New
York, NY 2008
Kartomi, Margaret J.: On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments
,
University of Chicago 1990
Mizuno, Kogen: Essentials of Buddhism
, by Kogen Mizuno, Kosei Publishing Co.
(Tokyo) 1972
Newman, Bruce: A Beginner’s Guide to Tibetan Buddhism, Notes from a Practitioner’s
Journey, Snow Lion Publications (New York) 2004
Rinpoche, Sogyal: The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, HarperCollins Publishers
(NY) 1992
Rinpoche, Tenzin Wangyal: Tibetan Sound Healing, Sounds True, Inc., Boulder, CO
2011
Good, Marian; Picot, Bradford Lee; Salem, Safaa Gaber; Chin, Chi-Chun; Picot, Sandra
Fulton and Lane, Deforia: “Cultural Differences in Music Chosen for Pain Relief,”
(Study) Journal of Holistic Nursing, 2000
Ellingson, Ter, “Don rta dbya gsum: Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories” Asian
Music, 1979
Lhalungpa, Lobsang Ph.: “Tibetan Music: Sacred and Secular,” Studies in Comparative
Religion, Vol. 3, No. 2, (Spring, 1969)
Mabbett, IW: “Buddhism & Music,” Asian Music, 1993
Jacqueline Mandell, personal interview October 25, 2011
7
7
Jacqueline Mandell is president of Leadership From a Pure Heart, LLC and the founding teacher of Samden Ling, a community of
Buddhist practitioners in the Nyingma tradition. She received meditation training from Adzom Rinpoche in 1996 at Samye Chimpuk,
Tibet, during the auspicious circumstances of Sagadawa, the time of celebrating the Buddh
enlightenment. On December 25,
2003, Adzom Rinpoche formally authorized Jacqueline to teach the Longchen Nyingthig Ngondro. Jacqueline began Buddhist
Meditation practice January 1972 in Bodh Gaya, India
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Websites:
Buddhismbeliefs.org
www.opensourcebuddhism.org
www.doinga360.com
National Music Museum Website (http://orgs.usd.edu/nmm/Tibet/TibetNepal.html)
YouTube
Music Sources:
Anthology of World Music – The Music of Tibetan Buddhism, International Institute for
Traditional Music, Rounder Records Corp, 1999
Voice of Tibet, a treasury of sacred mantras and prayers gathered from the great masters
of Tibet and sung by H.E. Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche, Mosh Studio, San Paolo, Brazil,
1997
Tibetan Chants for World Peace, sung by the Gyuto Monks Tantric Choir, White Swan
Records, 2008
Sacred Tibetan Chant, sung by the Monks of the Sherab Ling Monastery, Naxos World
Music, 2003.
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Appendix A
YouTube Music Video or Audio Examples:
Don Chant:
“One Deep Singing Monk with Singing Bowls, Cymbals and Ga”
This Example Is In Between Don and Rta Chant
“Gyuto Monks Tantric Choir Praising Chakrasamvara” (note overtone singing)
Rta Chant:
“Buddhist chants from the high Himalayas, recited by the Nuns of Druk Gawa Khilwa
Abbey, Ladakh
“Tibetan Buddhist Chanting Om Mani Padme Hum”
Dbyangs Chant:
“Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche Video Compilation” (Very beginning of video clip)
Liturgical Instrumental Music
“Gyuto Monks Tantric Choir Great Sacred Music”
Vocal Overtone Technique – Explanation
“Tibetan and Central Asian Throat Singing Music” (you can also go to www.opensourcebuddhism.org
for unedited version)
“Westernized” Version of Vajra Guru (Padmasambhava) Mantra
“Vajra Guru (Padmasambhava) Mantra”
Appendix D
Definition of Terms
Bardo: (Tibetan) The intermediate state after an individual’s death and before his/her rebirth
into another life. The Bardo Thodol (Book of the Dead) attributed to Padmasambhava describes
six different bardo states, the bardos of birth, dream, meditation, the moment of death, supreme
reality and becoming. In this paper we are addressing four of those states.
Bodhisattva: An advanced individual who chooses not to attain Nirvana and instead remain in
the world of Samsara in order to help others attain enlightenment.
Buddha Nature: The concept that all beings, human or otherwise, possess a pure or original
nature, which is the same as that possessed by Buddhas or otherworldly beings. A Buddha can
be any person who has been able to find an end to suffering and achieved lasting happiness and
peace.
Dakinis: Female semi-divine beings who are personifications of various levels of the spiritual
universe. In Tibet they are known as khadromas and are assumed to exist at the highest spiritual
levels.
Dharma: The doctrines taught by the Buddha (the law). Dharma can refer to teachings in the
physical form of the canon, or it can refer to the doctrinal content of Buddhism.
Dharmas of Existence: (The second definition of dharma (usually not capitalized) Elements of
existence which includes all elements of reality including mind.
Dharmakaya: The “dharma body” of the Buddha. The dharma body is the essence of the
Buddha which is eternal and bears no dualities.
2 Appendix D – An Eastern Perspective on Dying
Dzogchen: (Great Perfection) It refers both to the natural and primordial state of the
enlightened mind that all sentient beings possess, and to a set of teachings that are designed to
aid one in the realization of this.
Emptiness: The ideal of non-attachment. Non-attachment means that there is nothing that is
permanent and that one shouldn’t grasp on to something, whether it’s a part of the material world
or within one’s mind, with the belief that it is permanent or unchanging. A person who is in the
state of emptiness will not be able to possess any of the negative emotions and will not harm
others; they will only express compassion and love.
Ground Luminosity: (Clear light) The dawning of the nature of mind at the moment of death.
All negative emotions of anger, desire and ignorance dissolve, leaving nothing to obscure the
enlightened mind in each of us.
Inner Dissolution: The state when the dying person’s thought states and emotions dissolve in
the dying process. There are four levels of consciousness that are encountered in this phase.
Mara: A deity who tempts humans to take the path of evil, a Satan-like presence.
Nirvana: Nirvana is a state of liberation from individuality and the suffering of samsara (see
below). The individual who has achieved Nirvana has overcome desire, hate and delusion and is
no longer subject to the dictates of Karma. Nirvana is often depicted as bliss or cessation of
suffering.
Outer Dissolution: The state when the dying person’s senses and their corresponding elements
dissolve in the dying process.
Phowa: A practice of yoga and meditation to aid the dying person prepare for death and effect a
transference of consciousness at the moment of death.
3 Appendix D – An Eastern Perspective on Dying
Rigpa: The nature of mind which can be found by each of us which is pure and changeless and
always clear and present, naked awareness; the knowledge of knowledge itself.
Samsara: The cycle of birth, decay, death and rebirth to which all living beings are subject until
they achieve release through enlightenment. Samsara literally refers to “journeying.”
Tantra: Refers to a system or collection of teachings. The teachings to which the term Tantra
refers are the reality beyond the surface of experience, that continuum where samsara merges
with nirvana. Tantric Buddhism has a general emphasis on magical elements and worship of
deities as a means to reach enlightenment.
Three Realms: The Buddhist vision of the cosmos which includes the land of the living. The
three realms include the world of sensual desire; the world of fo rm or matter; and the world of
formlessness or spirit.
